1. See generally Plomin Robert, et al. Behavioral Genetics. 4th ed. 72-92. 2001. (reviewing basic structure of adoption and twin designs); Baker Laura A. Methods for Understanding Genetic and Environmental Influences in Normal and Abnormal Personality. In: Strack S, editor. Differentiating Normal and Abnormal Personality. 2006. (in press) (reviewing the major classical genetic designs as well as their assumptions, strengths, and weaknesses).

2. Genes do not always act in a dominant or recessive fashion (such that one gene masks the effects of another gene). Instead, each gene at a given locus may contribute additively to the phenotype. Even when dominant genes are involved, however, additive effects can appear.

3. Quantitative traits are those that exist on a continuum, such as height, weight, extraversion, or general intelligence; qualitative traits are usually all or nothing phenomena such as disease status, eye color, criminal convictions. The term complex is often used synonymously with quantitative.

4. See generally Sham Pak. Recent Developments in Quantitative Trait Loci Analysis. In: Plomin Robert, et al., editors. Behavioral Genetics IN THE Postgenomic Era. Vol. 41 2003.

5. Id.

6. An allele is a variation of a particular gene at a given locus. Genotype refers to the combination of alleles at a given locus, or more generally to a combination of alleles at two or more loci.

7. See infra Part IV.B.

9. Id.

10. Id.

11. Id.

12. Id.

13. For example, official criminal records represent clear violations of legal norms, but they may be incomplete to the extent that undetected crimes may exist. Self-reported antisocial behavior may be used to assess a broader range of behaviors, including both detected and undetected criminal activity as well as less serious, noncriminal antisocial behavior, but such self-reports will be influenced by the respondent's dishonesty. Parental ratings of antisocial behavior in young children reflect perhaps the most intimate knowledge of the children's behavior (apart from that of the children themselves); however, parents may be unable to judge the child's motivations (such as whether aggressive behavior may be proactive or the result of provocation), and parents have limited observations of the child's behavior outside of the home. Teacher reports provide useful information about school-related behaviors, but these may also lack information about the child's motivations and may not adequately distinguish between victims and perpetrators during conflicts among children.

14. See Rhee & Waldman, supra note 8, at 515.

15. Id. at 514.

16. Id.

17. Id.

18. Id.

19. Id. at 512-14.

20. Id. at 512-13.

21. Id. at 512-14.

22. Id. at 495.

23. Baker Laura A., et al. Genetic and Environmental Bases of Antisocial Behavior in Children. unpublished manuscript, on file with Law and Contemporary Problems.

24. Id.

25. Id.

26. Id.

27. Id. Compare Rhee & Waldman, supra note 8, at 516-17, 522.

28. See, e.g., Rhee & Waldman, supra note 8.

29. Id.

31. See, e.g. , Dilalla Lisabeth Fisher, Gottesman Irving I. Heterogeneity of Causes for Delinquency and Criminality: Lifespan Perspectives. 1 Dev. & Psychopathology. 1990;339

32. Rhee & Waldman, supra note 8, at 494.

37. See, e.g ., Torgersen S, et al. The Psychometric-Genetic Structure of DSM-III-R Personality Disorder Criteria. 7 J. Personality Disorders. 1993;196

38. See Cloninger CR, Gottesman II. Genetic and Environmental Factors in Antisocial Behavior Disorders. In: Mednick SA, et al., editors. The Causes of Crime: New Biological Approaches. Vol. 92. 1987. pp. 96100.

40. Hutchins & Mednick, supra note 36.

41. Wilson James Q., Herrnstein Richard J. Crime and Human Nature. 1985:10412.;cf. Hyde Janet S. How Large Are Gender Differences in Aggression? A Developmental Analysis. 20 Developmental Psychol. 1984;722 (discussing gender variation in aggression).

42. See Rhee & Waldman, supra note 8, at 494 (noting that genetic effects on antisocial behavior are equal between the sexes, but that genetic effects on aggression are not equal).

43. See Cloninger & Gottesman, supra note 38.

44. Rhee & Waldman, supra note 8.

45. Cloninger & Gottesman, supra note 38.

46. Baker et al., supra note 23.

47. Baker Laura A., Raine Adrian. The Delinquency Interview for Children (DI-C): A Self-report Measure of Antisocial Behavior. 2005 unpublished manuscript, on file with Law and Contemporary Problems.

48. Id.

49. Id.

50. Raine Adrian, et al. Biological Risk Factors for Antisocial and Criminal Behavior. In: Raine Adrian., editor. Crime and schizophrenia: Causes and Cures. forthcoming.

51. Baker & Raine, supra note 47.

52. Rhee & Waldman, supra note 8.

53. Baker & Raine, supra note 47.

54. See infra Part V.A.

60. Robert Cloninger C, et al. Epidemiology and Axis I Comorbidity of Antisocial Personality. In: Stoff David M., et al., editors. Handbook of Antisocial Behavior. Vol. 12 1997.

61. Robins Lee N. Deviant Children Grown Up: A Sociological and Psychiatric Study of Sociopathic Personality. 1966

62. See Robins Lee N., et al. Antisocial Personality. In: Robins Lee N., Regier Darrel A., editors. Psychiatric Disorders in America: The Epidemilogic Catchment Area Study. Vol. 258. 1991. p. 264. (describing the common remission of the disorder as the individual advances into adulthood).

63. Id. at 25960.

64. Id. at 260.

65. Id.

66. van den Bree Marian B.M., et al. Antisocial Personality and Drug Use DisordersAre They Genetically Related? In: Fishbein Diane H., editor. The Science, Treatment, and Prevention of Antisocial Behaviors: Application to the Criminal Justice System. 8-1. 2000. pp. 8-18-2.

67. Robins et al, supra note 62, at 271.

68. Cloninger & Gottesman, supra note 38.

69. Van den Bree et al., supra note 66, at 8-6.

70. Id.

72. American Psychological Ass'n . Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Vol. 85. 1994.

74. Id.

76. Robins, supra note 61, at 141-42.

79. See Robins, supra note 61, at 163-66.

80. See, e.g., Lahey & Loeber, supra note 77.

81. Scourfield et al., supra note 71, at 489.

83. Gelhorn et al., supra note 73, at 588. Thapar et al., supra note 82, at 226. Cadoret et al., supra note 34.

84. Scourfield et al., supra note 71, at 494. Eaves et al., supra note 57, at 973.

86. Id.

87. Id., at 352.

88. Coolidge et al., supra note 82, at 282 tbl.4 (finding a heritability estimate of 0.61); Eaves et al., supra note 57, at 974 tbl.3 (finding heritability of fourteen percent for girls as measured by their fathers' responses to questionnaires and heritability of sixty-five percent for boys as measured from interviews with their fathers).

89. Goldman David, Fishbein Diana H. Genetic Bases for Impulsive and Antisocial Behaviors Can Their Course Be Altered? The Science, Treatment, and Prevention of Antisocial Behaviors: Application to the Criminal Justice System , supra note 70, at 9-1, 9-2.

91. Goldman & Fishbein, supra note 89, at 9-6.

94. Coccarro et al., supra note 90 at 234-35.

95. Goldman & Fishbein, supra note 89, at 9-6.

96. Coccarro et al., supra note 90 at 234-35.

98. Goldman & Fishbein, supra note 89, at 9-2.

100. Thapar et al., supra note 99 at 105.

102. See Lahey Benjamin, Loeber Rolf. Handbook of Antisocial Behavior. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Conduct Disorder, and Adult Antisocial Behavior: A Life Span Perspective. supra note 60, at 51.

105. Thapar et al., supra note 99, at 109; Barkley, supra note 99.

106. Barkley Russell A. ADHD and the Nature of Self-Control. 1997:3741.

107. Thapar et al., supra note 99, at 106-09. Indeed, first-degree relatives of male probands were five times more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than relatives of the normal controls.

110. Thapar et al., supra note 99, at 107.

113. See, e.g., Levy et al., supra note 109. Sherman et al., supra note 109. Silberg et al., supra note 111.

115. Barkley, supra note 99, at 4041.

118. Coolidge et al., supra note 82.

120. See id. at 58-65.

122. Coolidge et al., supra note 117.

123. Id.

124. See Raine Adrian. The Psychopathology of Crime: Criminal Behavior as Clinical Disorder. 1993:21516.

125. Coolidge et al., supra note 82, at 275. See generally American Psychological Ass'n, supra note 72.

126. Coolidge et al., supra note 82, at 275.

127. Id.

128. Alcohol use is presumed to contribute to violence because of the pharmacological properties of the drug, as well as expectancies and societal norms surrounding these aspects. See generally White Helene Raskin. Alcohol, Illicit Drugs, and Violence. Handbook of Antisocial Behavior , supra note 60, at 511.

129. White, supra note 128.

130. Id. at 512.

132. Id.

135. Hicks et al., supra note 131, at 923. Kendler et al., supra note 134. Krueger et al., supra note 134. Jacobson et al., supra note 134.

136. See, e.g., Hicks et al., supra note 131, at 923. Kendler et al., supra note 134, at 92930. Krueger et al., supra note 134, at 41113. Jacobson et al., supra note 134.

137. See, e.g., Hicks et al., supra note 131, at 923.

138. Id. at 92427.

141. Falconer DS, Mackay Trudy F.C. Introduction to Quantitative Genetics. 4th ed. 1996. pp. 31213.

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